{"id":24463,"date":"2026-03-25T12:34:13","date_gmt":"2026-03-25T11:34:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/?p=24463"},"modified":"2026-03-25T12:34:16","modified_gmt":"2026-03-25T11:34:16","slug":"photovoltaic-cells-what-are-they-and-how-do-they-work","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/photovoltaic-cells-what-are-they-and-how-do-they-work\/","title":{"rendered":"Photovoltaic Cells: What They Are and How They Work"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"sommario\">Photovoltaic cells are the basic element for the production of electricity. Discover what their characteristics are and how they work<\/p>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells, semiconductor devices capable of transforming sunlight into electrical energy thanks to the photovoltaic effect, represent the fundamental unit of every photovoltaic system.<\/p>\n<p>A photovoltaic plant is characterized by a set of <strong>solar panels<\/strong>, arranged in series or in parallel; at the base of each panel are the photovoltaic cells, responsible for converting solar radiation into electricity.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s discover together what the basic elements of a photovoltaic system are and how they work.<\/p>\n<p>The design of a photovoltaic system is a very delicate operation that requires particular care and attention. To avoid making mistakes that could cost you dearly after the installation of the system, I recommend relying on an effective <a href=\"https:\/\/www.accasoftware.com\/en\/solar-design-software\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">photovoltaic software<\/a> to design systems safely and guided.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"what-are-photovoltaic-cells\">What are photovoltaic cells?<\/h2>\n<p>Photovoltaic <strong>cells<\/strong> are the basic element in the production of <strong>electricity<\/strong> through <strong>solar energy<\/strong>. They can be made from different materials, but the most widespread and effective semiconductor is <strong>silicon<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Silicon has an important characteristic: only a minimal amount of energy is needed for valence electrons to be harnessed to generate an electric current.<\/p>\n<p>To exploit this phenomenon, the so-called <strong>doping<\/strong> is used, which involves the introduction of impurities into the semiconductor. Usually, <strong>boron<\/strong> (negative charge) and <strong>phosphorus<\/strong> (positive charge) are used, which create a barrier known as the junction zone. It is thanks to this <strong>p-n junction<\/strong> that the <strong>diode<\/strong> is formed, an essential element for transforming sunlight into usable electrical energy.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24533\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24533\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24533 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping.jpg\" alt=\"Tetravalent silicon doping diagram\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24533\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24533 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping.jpg\" alt=\"Tetravalent silicon doping diagram\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Tetravalent-silicon-doping-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Tetravalent silicon doping<\/p><\/div>\n<h2 id=\"operation-of-a-photovoltaic-cell\">Operation of a photovoltaic cell<\/h2>\n<p>To verify the efficiency of a photovoltaic cell, it is necessary to connect it to two measuring instruments, namely the <strong>ammeter<\/strong>, which measures electric current, and the <strong>voltmeter<\/strong>, which measures voltage.<\/p>\n<p>In an electrical circuit, the two instruments are connected in parallel to prevent the ammeter from measuring the electrical resistance present within the voltmeter itself and to ensure the measurement of the cell&#8217;s performance independently of external systems.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24540\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24540\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24540 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell.jpg\" alt=\"Photovoltaic cell - electrical measurements\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24540\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24540 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell.jpg\" alt=\"Photovoltaic cell - electrical measurements\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Photovoltaic-cell-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Photovoltaic cell &#8211; electrical measurements<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Inside the circuit, an <strong>electric load<\/strong> is also inserted, which affects the performance of the cell: depending on the load, both the intensity and the voltage of the produced current vary. In these conditions, two main cases are distinguished:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>open circuit<\/strong>: the current is zero (no electrical contact), while the voltage reaches the maximum value that the cell can produce (<strong>Voc \u2013 open circuit voltage<\/strong>);<\/li>\n<li><strong>closed circuit<\/strong>: the load is minimum and the current is maximum (<strong>Isc \u2013 short circuit current<\/strong>), while the voltage is close to zero.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The graphical representation of these values generates the <strong>V-I characteristic curve<\/strong> (or volt-ampere curve), from which fundamental parameters such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>peak intensity;<\/li>\n<li>peak voltage;<\/li>\n<li>peak power;<\/li>\n<li>fill factor.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Another very important parameter is the <strong>maximum power point (MPP)<\/strong>, which represents the optimal working condition of the cell. In real systems, the task of continuously tracking this point is entrusted to inverters equipped with MPPT technology <em>(Maximum Power Point Tracking)<\/em>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24541\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24541\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24541 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power.jpg\" alt=\"Distinguishing factors of a photovoltaic cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24541\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24541 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power.jpg\" alt=\"Distinguishing factors of a photovoltaic cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Fill-factor-and-peak-power-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Distinguishing factors of a photovoltaic cell<\/p><\/div>\n<h2 id=\"structure-and-materials-of-a-photovoltaic-cell\">Structure and Materials of a Photovoltaic Cell<\/h2>\n<p>A photovoltaic cell is composed of multiple layers of materials that, together, allow for the conversion of sunlight into electrical energy:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>front transparent layer:<\/strong> usually tempered glass, protects the cell from environmental agents and lets solar radiation pass through;<\/li>\n<li><strong>anti-reflective layer:<\/strong> reduces light dispersion, maximizing absorption;<\/li>\n<li><strong>semiconductor layer:<\/strong> generally silicon, is the heart of the cell. Here the photovoltaic effect occurs thanks to the p-n junction created by doping;<\/li>\n<li><strong>metal contacts:<\/strong> thin conductive grids deposited on the front and back surfaces, which collect the electrons generating electric current;<\/li>\n<li><strong>back layer:<\/strong> often made of plastic or metal materials, provides insulation and mechanical protection.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In recent years, new materials such as <strong>perovskites<\/strong> have also been developed, which promise to increase efficiency and reduce costs, although they are still in the research and experimentation phase.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"types-of-photovoltaic-cells-and-their-characteristics\">Types of Photovoltaic Cells and Their Characteristics<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Photovoltaic cells<\/strong> are mainly distinguished based on the structure of silicon with which they are made. The most common types are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>monocrystalline cells;<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>polycrystalline cells;<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>amorphous cells.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"attachment_24534\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24534\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24534 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies.jpg\" alt=\"Types of photovoltaic cells \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24534\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24534 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies.jpg\" alt=\"Types of photovoltaic cells \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Types-of-PV-technologies-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Types of photovoltaic cells<\/p><\/div>\n<h3>Monocrystalline photovoltaic cells<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Monocrystalline cells<\/strong> are made from a single crystal, oriented in the same direction. This characteristic allows for the optimal utilization of solar energy that the cell is capable of capturing. The color of these cells is typically black.<\/p>\n<p>The method used to produce monocrystalline cells is the <strong>Czochralski process<\/strong>. This is a process in which a crystal seed is inserted into a molten silicon, within which the seed rotates vertically counterclockwise and, by slowly dipping, allows the molten silicon to crystallize orderly onto the immersing seed.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24535\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24535\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24535 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon.jpg\" alt=\"Monocrystalline photovoltaic cells\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24535\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24535 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon.jpg\" alt=\"Monocrystalline photovoltaic cells\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Monocrystalline-silicon-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Monocrystalline photovoltaic cells<\/p><\/div>\n<p>At the end of the process, all the crystals are oriented uniformly enough to materialize a <strong>single macro crystal<\/strong>, giving rise to a silicon ingot.<\/p>\n<p>The ingot is then sliced into thin wafers, just a few hundred micrometers thick: the thinner the wafer, the greater the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell. Finally, the wafers are appropriately doped (with boron or phosphorus) and assembled to form the photovoltaic cells.<\/p>\n<p>These cells are the most efficient (15\u201322%) and have a long lifespan, but also higher production costs.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24536\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24536\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24536 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot.jpg\" alt=\"Monocrystalline silicon bar\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24536\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24536 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot.jpg\" alt=\"Monocrystalline silicon bar\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Silicon-ingot-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Monocrystalline silicon bar<\/p><\/div>\n<h3>Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Polycrystalline cells<\/strong> are derived from waste from the electronics industry; they are formed from multiple crystals and their typical coloration is that of shimmering blue.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24537\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24537\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24537 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon.jpg\" alt=\"Polycrystalline cells\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24537\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24537 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon.jpg\" alt=\"Polycrystalline cells\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Polycrystalline cells<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Cooling occurs more quickly compared to monocrystalline, in a thermostatic bath that <strong>crystallizes silicon in different directions<\/strong>. This allows for a faster and more economical production process, but with slightly lower efficiency (12-18%), due to the disordered orientation of the crystals.<\/p>\n<p>They are very common because they offer a good compromise between price and performance.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24538\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24538\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24538 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of polycrystalline cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24538\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24538 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of polycrystalline cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Polycrystalline-silicon-cell-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Detail of polycrystalline cell<\/p><\/div>\n<h3>Amorphous Photovoltaic Cells (Thin Film)<\/h3>\n<p>The <strong>amorphous photovoltaic cells<\/strong> have a more chaotic structure than silicon, which, in this configuration, no longer has a crystalline form.<\/p>\n<p>This characteristic allows for the creation of <strong>thin film cells<\/strong>, extremely thin and flexible, which can also be applied to surfaces that are not perfectly flat.<\/p>\n<p>The process of creating an amorphous cell is very simple: on a <strong>rigid substrate (glass or metal)<\/strong>, multiple layers of material are deposited using <strong>appropriate technologies (sputtering or evaporation)<\/strong>, two of these layers (the outermost) become conduction electrodes, while the inner layer becomes the junction of the photovoltaic cell.<\/p>\n<p>In this process, the technologies mainly used are <em>triple junction<\/em> technology and <em>cadmium-telluride\/cadmium-sulfide (CTS)<\/em> technology.<\/p>\n<p>Amorphous cells have lower efficiency (6\u201312%) and shorter lifespan, but they are very versatile and find applications in <strong>architectural integration<\/strong> (facades, curved roofs, urban furniture) and <strong>in portable devices<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>To explore the differences between various technologies, you can also check out this article on <a href=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/types-of-photovoltaic-systems-characteristics-and-advantages\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">types of photovoltaic systems<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_24539\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24539\" class=\"wp-image-24539 size-full lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680.jpg\" alt=\"Amorphous photovoltaic cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"318\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24539\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-24539 size-full lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680.jpg\" alt=\"Amorphous photovoltaic cell\" width=\"800\" height=\"318\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680-300x119.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680-768x305.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680-705x280.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Amorphous-cell-e1669972396680-403x160.jpg 403w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> Amorphous photovoltaic cell<\/p><\/div>\n<h2 id=\"series-and-parallel-configurations-in-photovoltaic-modules\">Series and Parallel Configurations in Photovoltaic Modules<\/h2>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells are <strong>diodes<\/strong> and behave like batteries. They can be connected in series or in parallel.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>In a <strong>series connection (positive to negative)<\/strong>, voltages add up and current remains constant. The characteristic curve shows an increase on the voltage axis.<\/li>\n<li>In a <strong>parallel connection (positives with positives and negatives with negatives)<\/strong>, voltage remains constant while current increases. In this case, the curve shifts upward.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In addition to configurations, environmental conditions also affect cell performance:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>temperature:<\/strong> if temperature rises beyond certain values, voltage decreases, leading to a loss of efficiency. This is one of the reasons why photovoltaic modules are tested with temperature coefficients declared by manufacturers;<\/li>\n<li><strong>solar radiation:<\/strong> as irradiation decreases, current intensity significantly reduces while voltage varies little; thus, the curve tends to flatten.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>To correctly design a system, it is essential to rely on <strong>reliable climatic data<\/strong>, such as that provided by <strong>solar atlases<\/strong> or <strong>field measurement campaigns<\/strong>. In this context, <a class=\"textualLink_solarius-pv\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accasoftware.com\/en\/solar-design-software\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">photovoltaic design software<\/a> is extremely useful, allowing the calculation of expected production taking into account actual solar irradiation, available in the main international meteorological databases.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"from-a-single-cell-to-the-solar-module-how-panels-are-built\">From a Single Cell to the Solar Module: How Panels are Built<\/h2>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells connect to each other to form <strong>photovoltaic panels<\/strong>, which, in turn, connect to each other forming the <strong>photovoltaic system<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Each panel consists of dozens of <strong>electrically connected cells in series<\/strong> and is enclosed in a structure made of protective glass, encapsulating layers, and aluminum frames, ensuring mechanical strength and durability over time.<\/p>\n<p>In such a connection, panels can be arranged in different strings, possibly connected in parallel with each other. This configuration allows obtaining the necessary voltage and current to meet project requirements.<\/p>\n<p>Once the power to install is determined, it is possible to decide to produce it with a variable number of panels. The choice depends on several factors:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>available solar radiation<\/strong> in the installation area;<\/li>\n<li><strong>orientation and tilt<\/strong> of the modules;<\/li>\n<li><strong>available space<\/strong> and architectural constraints.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"attachment_24542\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24542\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24542 lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules.jpg\" alt=\"PV cells: configuration of 2 strings of 3 modules\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24542\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-24542 lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules.jpg\" alt=\"PV cells: configuration of 2 strings of 3 modules\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-2-strings-of-3-modules-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> PV cells: configuration of 2 strings of 3 modules<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_24543\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-24543\" class=\"wp-image-24543 size-full lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules.jpg\" alt=\"PV cells: configuration of 3 strings of 2 modules\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-24543\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-24543 size-full lazyload\" src=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules.jpg\" alt=\"PV cells: configuration of 3 strings of 2 modules\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules.jpg 800w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules-705x397.jpg 705w, https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2022\/12\/Connection-3-strings-of-2-modules-284x160.jpg 284w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/noscript> PV cells: configuration of 3 strings of 2 modules<\/p><\/div>\n<h2 id=\"how-photovoltaic-cells-generate-electricity-from-sunlight\">How Photovoltaic Cells Generate Electricity from Sunlight<\/h2>\n<p>The operation of photovoltaic cells is based on the so-called <strong>photovoltaic effect<\/strong>, a physical phenomenon discovered in the nineteenth century and now exploited to produce clean electrical energy.<\/p>\n<p>When sunlight hits the silicon layer of the cell, photons transmit their energy to the electrons present in the semiconductor. This energy is sufficient to free the electrons from their atomic bonds, allowing them to move.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the <strong>p-n junction<\/strong>, created through doping, causes the free electrons to be directed towards one side of the cell, while the holes (positive charges) move towards the other. This movement generates a potential difference between the two layers.<\/p>\n<p>By connecting metallic contacts to an external circuit, electrons can flow: thus, <strong>direct current<\/strong> is born.<\/p>\n<p>In a real photovoltaic system, the current produced by the cells is then channeled and converted by the <a href=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/pv-inverter\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">inverter<\/a> into alternating current, compatible with the electrical grid and with domestic or industrial uses.<\/p>\n<p>The efficiency with which the cell converts solar radiation into electricity depends on various factors: <strong>material quality<\/strong>, <strong>thickness of the semiconductor<\/strong>, <strong>operating temperature<\/strong>, and <strong>light intensity<\/strong>. Tools like the solar diagram help designers study the available irradiation and optimally position the panels to maximize production.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"advantages-and-disadvantages-of-photovoltaic-cells\">Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Cells<\/h2>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells are today one of the most widespread technologies for the production of renewable energy, thanks to the numerous benefits they offer. However, they also have some limitations that are important to consider in the design and installation phase.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Advantages<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>clean and sustainable energy:<\/strong> they do not produce polluting emissions during operation and contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases;<\/li>\n<li><strong>economic savings over time:<\/strong> the initial investment is repaid through savings on the bill and, in some cases, with incentives and tax deductions;<\/li>\n<li><strong>low maintenance:<\/strong> photovoltaic cells have no moving parts and only require periodic cleaning and routine checks;<\/li>\n<li><strong>scalability:<\/strong> it is possible to install a few modules for small needs or large systems to generate energy on a large scale;<\/li>\n<li><strong>architectural integration:<\/strong> with thin-film or flexible technologies, the modules can be integrated into facades, roofs, and even urban design elements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Disadvantages<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>dependence on solar radiation:<\/strong> energy production varies according to weather conditions and available irradiation;<\/li>\n<li><strong>initial cost:<\/strong> although constantly decreasing, the initial investment can be significant, especially for large systems;<\/li>\n<li><strong>limited efficiency:<\/strong> current cells convert only a portion of the incident solar radiation into electricity (an average of 15\u201322% for crystalline silicon modules);<\/li>\n<li><strong>degradation over time:<\/strong> performance gradually decreases with the age of the modules, although manufacturers usually guarantee at least 80% power after 20\u201325 years;<\/li>\n<li><strong>waste disposal and recycling:<\/strong> end-of-life panels contain materials that must be recovered and disposed of correctly, a challenge still evolving.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"flexible-photovoltaic-cells-and-new-technologies\">Flexible Photovoltaic Cells and New Technologies<\/h2>\n<p>Alongside traditional crystalline silicon solutions, <strong>new generations of photovoltaic cells<\/strong> have developed in recent years, with innovative characteristics and increasingly versatile applications.<\/p>\n<h3>Flexible Photovoltaic Cells<\/h3>\n<p>These cells use <strong>thin and lightweight materials<\/strong>, such as amorphous silicon or alternative semiconductor compounds (e.g., cadmium telluride or copper-indium-gallium selenide, CIGS). Their main feature is flexibility, making them suitable for:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>curved or irregular surfaces;<\/li>\n<li>mobile applications (tents, campers, boats, portable devices);<\/li>\n<li>innovative architectural integration, such as lightweight coverings or transparent facades.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>They still have <strong>lower efficiency<\/strong> compared to crystalline silicon cells, but research aims to improve their performance and durability.<\/p>\n<h3>Next-Generation Cells<\/h3>\n<p>In addition to flexible cells, research is exploring new technologies:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>perovskite cells:<\/strong> cost-effective materials, easy to produce, and with very high potential efficiency (&gt;25%). They are currently experimental due to stability and durability issues;<\/li>\n<li><strong>tandem cells:<\/strong> combining multiple materials (e.g., perovskite + silicon) to capture different wavelengths of sunlight, thereby increasing efficiency;<\/li>\n<li><strong>organic cells (OPV):<\/strong> made with conductive polymers, lightweight and potentially printable, ideal for design applications and electronic devices.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>These innovations pave the way for a future where solar panels are not just standardized elements, but integrable components in any surface or technological product.<\/p>\n<h3>How to Optimize the Design of a Photovoltaic System<\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/biblus.accasoftware.com\/en\/photovoltaic-systems-design\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">design of a photovoltaic system<\/a> is not limited to the choice of cells or panels: it requires a careful study of the <strong>climatic conditions<\/strong>, <strong>orientation<\/strong>, <strong>tilt<\/strong>, and the <strong>energy needs<\/strong> of the building or system.<\/p>\n<p>In this context, photovoltaic design software becomes a fundamental tool. They allow you to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>calculate the expected energy production based on actual irradiation data;<\/li>\n<li>simulate different configurations for the orientation and tilt of the modules;<\/li>\n<li>identify the impact of any shading;<\/li>\n<li>correctly size inverters and storage systems;<\/li>\n<li>evaluate the economic feasibility of the intervention.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The use of <a class=\"textualLink_solarius-pv\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accasoftware.com\/en\/solar-design-software\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">photovoltaic software<\/a> is not just a technical support, but also an ally for making more informed decisions, reducing margins of error, and creating truly efficient and sustainable systems. For professionals, this means being able to design customized, reliable, and high-performance solutions. With professional photovoltaic software, you can design easily and quickly, optimize system performance, reduce costs, and offer your clients reliable and competitive solutions for the energy transition. Furthermore, such software has specific <strong>libraries<\/strong> of <strong>modules<\/strong>, <strong>inverters<\/strong>, <strong>batteries<\/strong>, and <strong>photovoltaic components<\/strong>, essential for correct design.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"faq-photovoltaic-cells\">FAQ &#8211; Photovoltaic Cells<\/h2>\n<h3>What is a photovoltaic cell?<\/h3>\n<p>A photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor device that converts solar radiation into electrical energy by exploiting the photovoltaic effect. It represents the fundamental unit of solar panels and is the basic element of any photovoltaic system.<\/p>\n<h3>How do photovoltaic cells work?<\/h3>\n<p>The operation of photovoltaic cells is based on the photovoltaic effect. When sunlight strikes the silicon in the cell, photons transfer energy to the semiconductor\u2019s electrons, freeing them from atomic bonds. The presence of the p-n junction, created through silicon doping, generates a potential difference that sets the electrons in motion. By connecting the metal contacts to an external circuit, direct current (DC) electricity is produced.<\/p>\n<h3>What are the main types of photovoltaic cells?<\/h3>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells are primarily classified according to the structure of the silicon used. The most common types are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>monocrystalline cells, made from a single silicon crystal;<\/li>\n<li>polycrystalline cells, composed of multiple crystals;<\/li>\n<li>amorphous or thin-film cells, characterized by a non-crystalline structure and greater flexibility.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>These technologies exhibit different characteristics in terms of efficiency, cost, and applications.<\/p>\n<h3>What is the efficiency of photovoltaic cells?<\/h3>\n<p>The efficiency of photovoltaic cells indicates their ability to convert solar radiation into electrical energy. This value depends on several factors, including material quality, semiconductor thickness, operating temperature, and solar irradiance.<\/p>\n<p>The most widely used technologies have different efficiency ranges:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>monocrystalline cells: 15\u201322%<\/li>\n<li>polycrystalline cells: 12\u201318%<\/li>\n<li>thin-film cells: 6\u201312%<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Monocrystalline cells are generally the most efficient, while thin-film cells have lower efficiencies but offer greater flexibility and application versatility.<\/p>\n<h3>What is the difference between a photovoltaic cell and a photovoltaic panel?<\/h3>\n<p>A photovoltaic cell is the individual semiconductor device that generates electrical energy from sunlight. A photovoltaic panel, or module, is composed of multiple cells electrically connected to one another and encapsulated within a protective structure consisting of glass, encapsulant layers, and an aluminum frame. Multiple interconnected panels form a photovoltaic system.<\/p>\n<h3>How are photovoltaic cells interconnected?<\/h3>\n<p>Photovoltaic cells can be connected in series or in parallel. In a series configuration, voltages add up while the current remains constant. In a parallel configuration, the voltage remains constant while the current increases.<br \/>\nThese configurations make it possible to achieve the voltage and current levels required for the operation of photovoltaic modules and systems.<\/p>\n<h3>What factors affect the performance of photovoltaic cells?<\/h3>\n<p>The performance of photovoltaic cells is mainly influenced by:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>temperature, which can reduce voltage and therefore cell efficiency;<\/li>\n<li>solar irradiance, which directly affects the generated current;<\/li>\n<li>the quality of semiconductor materials and the cell structure.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For this reason, when designing a photovoltaic system, it is important to consider reliable climatic data and use simulation tools to estimate energy production.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"international-product-banner-desktop\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"product-banner-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accasoftware.com\/en\/solar-design-software\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"\/wp-content\/themes\/enfold-child\/img\/banner_prodotto\/solarius-pv-en.jpg\" alt=\"solarius-pv\" width=\"728\" height=\"160\" \/><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"lazyload\" src=\"\/wp-content\/themes\/enfold-child\/img\/banner_prodotto\/solarius-pv-en.jpg\" alt=\"solarius-pv\" width=\"728\" height=\"160\" \/><\/noscript><\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"international-product-banner-mobile\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"product-banner-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accasoftware.com\/en\/solar-design-software\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"lazyload\" src=\"data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\" data-src=\"\/wp-content\/themes\/enfold-child\/img\/banner_prodotto_mobile\/solarius-pv-en.jpg\" alt=\"solarius-pv\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" \/><noscript><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"lazyload\" src=\"\/wp-content\/themes\/enfold-child\/img\/banner_prodotto_mobile\/solarius-pv-en.jpg\" alt=\"solarius-pv\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" \/><\/noscript><\/a><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Photovoltaic cells are the basic element for the production of electricity. Discover what their characteristics are and how they work<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":9,"featured_media":50043,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_data_scadenza_evento":"","_evento_nome":"","_evento_data":"","_evento_luogo":"","_evento_cta":"","keyword_en":"","keyword_es":"","keyword_fr":"","keyword_de":"","keyword_ptb":"","_note_content":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[5081],"tags":[5017,5264],"class_list":["post-24463","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-bim-energy","tag-newsletter-269","tag-newsletter-438"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v28.8 (Yoast SEO v28.8) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Photovoltaic Cells: What They Are and How They Work - BibLus<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Photovoltaic cells are the basic element for electricity production. 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